Report: Circular flows to meet increased demand for metals and minerals
This second of four reports within the project Roadmap for Metals and Minerals emphasizes the importance of developing circular systems, as the major societal challenges cannot be solved solely through increased use of primary resources from mining. One conclusion is that waste is insufficiently utilized as a resource to contribute to a sustainable and secure supply of critical metals and minerals.
The perception of waste needs to change. We need regulations where used products and waste are seen as valuable resources.
Mikael Dahlgren, IVA Fellow and Chair of the Expert Group
The transition to a fossil-free society will require enormous amounts of critical metals and minerals. Better recycling of end-of-life products is a crucial piece of the puzzle to meet this challenge, but regulations and the perception of waste need to change. Politicians at national and European level need to act to drive development and remove barriers to circularity.
To meet climate goals, we must use more renewable energy. Wind turbines, electric cars, solar panels, and hydrogen production require metals and minerals. We can reuse and recycle more, but to do so, new long-term rules that promote circularity are needed. Today, there are no incentives, infrastructure or knowledge to truly take advantage of used products and ultimately recycle all the metals they contain. Many products are currently difficult to disassemble, making them hard to repair or separate into pure fractions for material recycling. There is also a lack of opportunities for recycling companies to collect larger volumes of waste, and thereby achieving more cost-effective material recycling.
'It needs to be more profitable for producers to invest in designs that facilitate circularity. This is one of several important measures that need to be implemented to increase the material recycling of critical metals and minerals,' says Mikael Dahlgren.
Great potential for improvement
Today, recycling rates vary significantly between different metals. For bulk metals such as steel, copper and aluminium, recycling is well-developed. For other metals, such as lithium, gallium and rare earth metals, it is virtually non-existent. The mixture of many metals complicates recycling. Different processes are needed to recover different metals.
The report concludes that we need to invest more in research, innovation, and new technology to develop effective recycling of critical metals and minerals. Additionally, we must improve the tracking of material flows through digitalisation and better data collection.
This is the second of four reports within the Roadmap for
Metals and Minerals project. The purpose of the project is to help Sweden and Europe secure long-term, sustainable access to the metals and minerals needed for the transition to a fossil free society.
Glossary
Definitions and explanations of technical terms used in the report.
Alloys
Materials composed of a mixture of two or more different metallic elements. Specific combinations yield desired properties such as strength, heat resistance or corrosion resistance.
Circular design
Resource-efficient design that promotes repair, reuse, remanufacturing and efficient recycling.
Circular economy
An economic model that, in contrast to the traditional linear economy based on 'use and dispose’, focuses on reducing resource use through resource efficiency, extended product lifespan, reuse and materials recycling. A widely accepted definition of the circular economy is still lacking, but work is in progress on this within the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS, 2024).
Closed-loop recycling
A recycling system that involves the production, collection and recycling of materials in a way that allows for the continuous remanufacture of the same product using recycled materials. An example of this is the recycling of aluminium cans in Sweden.
Critical Raw Materials (CRM) within the EU
Raw materials with a significant risk of supply disruptions that may have undesirable consequences. In the EU, raw materials are given this classification because of their economic importance in relation to their supply risk. Examples of critical metals in the EU are cobalt, lithium, manganese and rare-earth elements. The EU’s list of critical and strategic raw materials is updated every three years, most recently in 2023. Raw materials defined as strategic (see the explanation below) are automatically included in the list of critical raw materials.
Downgrading
The process of converting a product or material into a lower- quality or less-valuable form, resulting in the degradation of the material or product.
Electronic waste
A term used in this report to refer to waste from electrical and electronic equipment in a broad sense. In the EU's Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive, electrical equipment in vehicles and large-scale stationary installations is excluded, as this is managed under other legislative acts.
EOL-RIR (End-of-Life Recycling Input Rate)
A measure of the proportion of materials in the production system derived from recycling ‘old scrap’, which refers to scrap from end-of-life products. Scrap generated from manufacturing processes is not included.
EOL-RR (End-of-Life Recycling Rate)
A measure of the proportion of materials in waste streams that is recycled.
Industrial waste
Surplus materials, production residues or defective products from industrial processes that are either discarded or recycled.
Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA)
A method for evaluating the environmental impacts of a product or service by analysing its entire life cycle, from a chosen start point to an end point. This includes stages such as raw-material extraction, manufacturing, usage and waste management.
Materials recycling
The system of reprocessing waste into new materials and substances that are not intended for use as a fuel or as filler material.
Metal
Elements are grouped into metals, semi-metals (including semiconductors) and non-metals. Metals are characterised by properties such as high electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, high density and metallic lustre.
Mineral
Chemical compounds, alloys or pure elements with well-defined chemical compositions, crystal structures and properties.
Modular design
A design principle that divides a system or product into smaller components, known as modules, which can be modified, replaced or interchanged with other modules. This approach promotes repairability and remanufacturing.
Post-consumer waste
This refers to waste generated from end-of-life products. It is produced by end-users, whether individuals or businesses, from items that have fulfilled their intended purpose or are no longer usable. Such waste is often complex and more challenging to manage than industrial waste.
Primary raw material
A raw material that is extracted from a mine.
Rare-earth Elements (REEs)
A collective name for the 15 lanthanides (atomic numbers 57 to 71). Scandium (21) and yttrium (39) are often included as well. REEs are usually divided into two groups — light and heavy — based on their chemical behaviour. They are used in electronics and have special magnetic, optical and catalytic properties. Many REEs have very specific properties that make them difficult to replace.
Raw material
A substance in either processed or unprocessed form that is used as an input in the production of intermediate or final products. This excludes substances primarily used as food, agricultural feed or fuel.
Reconditioning
A process to extend the lifespan of a product. New components may be added, but the product is not restored to an as-new condition.
Recycled (Secondary) raw material
A raw material obtained from previously used products that can be reused through recycling. Recycled raw materials can also come from other sources, such as purification concentrates from air- and water-emission treatment, dust and particles from steel production, and sludge from wastewater treatment.
Remanufacturing
An industrial process where used products are restored. Materials are added, and the product is brought back to an as-new condition or even better.
Repair
A process in which broken parts or products are mended. The remaining lifespan of the repaired item depends on its previous usage.
Reuse
A process where a product that is no longer needed by its owner is taken over by a new user who can benefit from it, instead of it becoming waste. No new materials are added, and the product’s technical lifespan is not extended.
Secondary raw material
See ‘Recycled raw material’.
Society-critical metals and minerals
This term is used here to refer collectively to metals and minerals classified by the EU as critical or strategic, as well as iron and limestone, which are essential for Sweden's industry.
Strategic raw materials within the EU
Raw materials that are considered strategic from a forward-looking perspective, to achieve a priority function such as the electrification of vehicles (electric cars). In the EU, this refers to raw materials that are particularly relevant for strategic technologies linked to the green transition, digitalisation and defence.
Vertical production
A production method where various stages of a manufacturing process are carried out within the same company or facility. This approach can enhance efficiency and provide better control over the production process.
Waste
Any substance or object which the holder discards, or intends or is required to discard (the EU’s legal definition).
